| civilization |
The stage of human social and cultural development and organization that is considered most advanced. For example, early Chinese civilization was marked by the creation of a writing system, bronze casting, and the construction of grand monumental architecture. |
| imperialism |
A policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force. For example, when Britain used its naval power to establish control over India in the 19th century. |
| nationalism |
Patriotic feeling, principles, or efforts that promote the interests of one's own country over those of others. For example, the unification of Germany in the 19th century under a nationalistic banner. |
| monarchy |
A form of government with a monarch (a hereditary king or queen) at the head. For most of history, monarchies were the dominant form of government in Western Europe, with the monarch controlling laws and policy. |
| republic |
A state in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives. For example, the United States has a republican form of government with a President, Congress, and a Supreme Court, where laws are passed through a system of votes. |
| feudalism |
A social hierarchy where lords own land and hold power over the peasant-servants who worked that land. For example, medieval Europe was organized under a feudal system, where knights and lords controlled land through feudal contracts with monarchs. |
| revolution |
An overthrow of a government or social order in favor of a new system. For example, the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century transformed the manufacturing industry and led to the rise of capitalist economies. |
| colonialism |
The policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another country or territory, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically. For example, Spain's colonization of the Americas in the 16th century. |
| socialism |
An economic and political system in which the means of production, distribution, and exchange are owned and controlled by the community as a whole. For example, the Soviet Union in the 20th century was a socialist state, where the government controlled most aspects of the economy. |
| fascism |
An authoritarian and nationalistic right-wing system of government and social organization. For example, Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler was a fascist state where individual freedoms were suppressed in the name of a centralized, militaristic government. |
| Cold War |
The state of political hostility and military tension between the Western powers (led by the United States) and the Eastern Bloc (led by the Soviet Union) from the end of World War II until the late 1980s. |
| isolationism |
A policy of remaining apart from the affairs or interests of other groups, especially the political affairs of other countries. For example, the United States was isolationist in the early 20th century, staying out of World War I for as long as it could. |
| Renaissance |
The cultural rebirth that occurred in Europe from the 14th to the middle of the 17th centuries. The Renaissance led to renewed interest in classical art and learning, and new discoveries in philosophy and science. |
| democracy |
A system of government by the whole population or all the eligible members of a state, usually through elections. For example, ancient Athens was an early democracy where eligible male citizens voted on laws and policies. |
| imperialism |
A policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force. For example, when Britain used its naval power to establish control over India in the 19th century. |
| genocide |
The deliberate killing of a large group of people, especially those of a particular ethnic group or nation. For example, the Holocaust during World War II was a genocide against Jews and other minority groups. |
| apartheid |
The former policy of segregation and political and economic discrimination against non-European groups in South Africa. For example, apartheid in South Africa was only abolished in the early 1990s. |
| communism |
A political theory advocating class war and leading to a society in which all property is publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs. For example, the former Soviet Union and modern-day China are both communist states. |
| industrialization |
The development of industries in a country or region on a wide scale. For example, the Industrial Revolution in 19th century Britain transformed the country into a manufacturing powerhouse, and led to advances in technology and the rise of the middle class. |
| nationalism |
Patriotic feeling, principles, or efforts that promote the interests of one's own country over those of others. For example, the unification of Germany in the 19th century under a nationalistic banner. |
| imperialism |
A policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force. For example, when Britain used its naval power to establish control over India in the 19th century. |
